Background
Methods
Eligibility criteria
Search strategy and selection of studies
Data extraction and qualitative synthesis
Quote | Code | Subcategory | Category | Topic |
---|---|---|---|---|
Several of the apps that we examined were used for promotional purposes that were not always readily apparent at first sight (Jutel and Lupton 2015) | Promotional purposes/intransparency | Intransparency | (In)Transparency | Technology |
Some of the health professionals believed that the symptom checkers were a threat to their professional autonomy as they reduced their control over the patient process and professional decision making (Kujala et al. 2020) | Threat to professional autonomy/control | Issues of professional power and authority | Patient-physician relationship | Individual level |
A principal benefit described by respondents was the possibility for digital self-care technologies to expand the reach of health care to hard-to-serve populations, possibly facilitating earlier disease detection (Fiske et al. 2020) | Expanding the reach of health care/hard-to-serve populations | Improved access/advantageous for specific groups | Justice | Healthcare system |
Results
Ethical, legal, and social aspects of SCA identified in the literature
Categories and subcategories | Frequencya | References |
---|---|---|
Technology | ||
Commercial aspects | 10 | |
Expertise of producers/developers | 5 | |
Lack of evidence | 16 | Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Chambers et al. (2019), Kujala et al. (2020), Dunn (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Kramer (2017), Merz et al. (2018), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Sönnichsen (2019), Hageman et al. (2015), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Kuhn et al. (2018), Iacobucci (2020), Semigran et al. (2015), Wyatt (2015) |
Lack of regulation (accuracy, quality, performance) | 5 | |
(In)Transparency | 7 | |
Quality of the apps | 6 | |
User participation in development | 4 | |
Individual level | ||
Healthcare professionals | 13 | |
Diagnosis and guidance | 10 | |
Digital expertise | 4 | |
Professional expertise | 4 | |
Responsibilities | 2 | |
User/patient-physician relationship | 19 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Wattanapisit et al. (2020), Aboueid et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Merz et al. (2018), Powley et al. (2016), Sönnichsen (2019), Morita et al. (2017), Kuhn et al. (2018), Semigran et al. (2015), Wyatt (2015), Thielscher and Antes (2019) |
Characteristics of the relationship | 4 | |
Expectations | 2 | |
Face-to-face-interaction | 3 | |
Trust | 1 | Meyer et al. (2020) |
Effects on the relationship | 5 | |
Procedures | 3 | |
Power | 17 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Wattanapisit et al. (2020), Aboueid et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Merz et al. (2018), Powley et al. (2016), Sönnichsen (2019), Morita et al. (2017), Semigran et al. (2015), Thielscher and Antes (2019) |
Authority of the technology | 4 | |
Issues of professional power and authority | 3 | |
Irreplaceability of physicians | 5 | |
SCA as rival | 11 | |
SCA as supplement | 11 | |
User/patients | 35 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Copeland et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Chambers et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Verzantvoort et al. (2018), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Shen et al. (2019), Dunn (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Kramer (2017), Merz et al. (2018), Powley et al. (2016), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Sönnichsen (2019), Morita et al. (2017), Hageman et al. (2015), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Kuhn et al. 2018, Semigran et al. (2015), Wyatt (2015), Herzog (2019), Lanseng and Andreassen (2007), Nijland et al. (2010), Jimison et al. (2007), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017), Albrecht et al. (2016), Rowland et al. (2020), Luger et al. (2014) |
Acceptance | 5 | |
Adherence and compliance | 3 | |
Autonomy | 16 | Hill et al. (2020), Meyer et al. (2020), Verzantvoort et al. (2018), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Merz et al. (2018), Powley et al. (2016), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Sönnichsen (2019), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Semigran et al. (2015), Nijland et al. (2010), Jimison et al. (2007), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017) |
Awareness of the own body/health | 3 | |
Benefits | 17 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Copeland et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Merz et al. (2018), Powley et al. (2016), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Semigran et al. (2015), Wyatt (2015), Nijland et al. (2010), Jimison et al. (2007) |
Privacy | 10 | |
Concerns regarding privacy and data security | 6 | |
Data sovereignty | 2 | |
Deficiencies and risks | 7 | |
Risks and potential harm | 28 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Copeland et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Chambers et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Verzantvoort et al. (2018), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Shen et al. (2019), Dunn (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Kramer (2017), Powley et al. (2016), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Sönnichsen (2019), Morita et al. (2017), Hageman et al. (2015), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Semigran et al. (2015), Wyatt (2015), Lanseng and Andreassen (2007), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017), Albrecht et al. (2016), Rowland et al. (2020), Luger et al. (2014) |
Delayed diagnosis and help | 6 | |
Diagnostic (in)accuracy: misdiagnosis | 18 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Copeland et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Chambers et al. (2019), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Shen et al. (2019), Dunn (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Kramer (2017), Powley et al. (2016), Sönnichsen (2019), Morita et al. (2017), Hageman et al. (2015), Semigran et al. (2015), Rowland et al. (2020) |
Due to user behaviour and aims | 13 | |
Incorrect use | 7 | |
Misconceptions | 4 | |
Trust in SCA | 6 | |
Influences on service use | 5 | |
Incorrect triage advice | 16 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Copeland et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Chambers et al. (2019), Verzantvoort et al. (2018), Kujala et al. (2020), Shen et al. (2019), Kramer (2017), Powley et al. (2016), Sönnichsen (2019), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Semigran et al. (2015), Nijland et al. (2010), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017), Rowland et al. (2020) |
(Patient)safety | 9 | |
Psychological harm | 5 | |
Healthcare system | ||
Data protection | 6 | |
Economic value of the data | 3 | |
Regulations (privacy policy) | 6 | |
Efficiency gains | 19 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Chambers et al. (2019), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Dunn (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Merz et al. (2018), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Kuhn et al. (2018), Semigran et al. (2015), Lanseng and Andreassen (2007), Nijland et al. (2010), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017) |
Increasing efficiency | 18 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Chambers et al. (2019), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Dunn (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Merz et al. (2018), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Kuhn et al. (2018), Semigran et al. (2015), Nijland et al. (2010), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017) |
Avoiding unnecessary doctor’s visits | 12 | |
Increasing the effectiveness of doctor’s visits | 2 | |
Potential cost savings | 12 | |
Promoting self-management | 3 | |
Efficiency losses | 17 | Hill et al. (2020), Chambers et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Verzantvoort et al. (2018), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Shen et al. (2019), Dunn (2020), Fraser et al. (2018), Powley et al. (2016), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Sönnichsen (2019), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Kuhn et al. (2018), Semigran et al. (2015), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017), Rowland et al. (2020) |
Cost increase | 3 | |
Increasing health care utilization | 13 | |
Increase the load on health system/professionals | 7 | |
Justice | 24 | Hill et al. (2020), Razzaki et al. (2018), Copeland et al. (2018), Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019, Chambers et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Kramer (2017), Ryan and Wilson (2008), Morita et al. (2017), Hageman et al. (2015), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Kuhn et al. (2018), Wyatt (2015), Lanseng and Andreassen (2007), Nijland et al. (2010), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017), Luger et al. (2014), Thielscher and Antes (2019) |
Improved access | 15 | Razzaki et al. (2018), Copeland et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Fiske et al. (2020), Jutel and Lupton (2015), Lupton and Jutel (2015), Kramer (2017), Morita et al. (2017), Kao and Liebovitz (2017), Kuhn et al. (2018), Wyatt (2015), Lanseng and Andreassen (2007), Thielscher and Antes (2019) |
Advantageous for structurally weak regions | 8 | |
Advantageous for specific groups | 2 | |
Broader access to healthcare in general | 10 | |
Influencing factors | 15 | Hill et al. (2020), Millenson et al. (2018), Aboueid et al. (2019), Chambers et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2020), Miller et al. (2020), Kujala et al. (2020), Kramer (2017), Hageman et al. (2015), Kuhn et al. (2018), Wyatt (2015), Lanseng and Andreassen (2007), Nijland et al. (2010), Marco-Ruiz et al. (2017), Luger et al. (2014) |
Access to technology | 2 | |
Digital literacy | 6 | |
Health literacy | 4 | |
Regarding decisions to use | 8 | |
Regarding user behaviour | 5 | |
Usability | 5 | |
Potential for discrimination | 3 | |
Structural changes | 3 | |
Boundaries of the clinical setting | 1 | Fiske et al. (2020) |
Medicalisation/healthism | 2 |